Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper

The neurodevelopmental disorders are a collection of diseases that manifest themselves during the developmental phase. In most cases, the diseases reveal themselves early in development, frequently before the child reaches elementary school, and are defined by developmental abnormalities that result in deficits in individual and interpersonal functioning, educational achievement, and occupational performance. The spectrum of developmental impairments ranges from extremely specific restrictions in learning or regulation of cognitive activities to more general deficits in social abilities or levels of intelligence,  Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper

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Types of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The following disorders are classified as neurodevelopmental disorders by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition:

  • Intellectual Disorders
  • Communication Disorders
  • Autism Spectrum Disorder.
  • Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
  • Specific learning disorders
  • Motor Disorders
  • Tic Disorders

Two of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental diseases identified in children are autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental diseases in children, accounting for around 5% of all cases (Márquez-Caraveo et al., 2021). In most cases, it is diagnosed in childhood and continues into adulthood in many cases. 3.4 percent of children and adolescents under the age of 18, 5.9 percent of teenagers, and 2.5 percent of adults globally have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, whereas in the United States it is estimated that 9.04 percent of children and adolescents are affected by ADHD (Márquez-Caraveo et al., 2021).. Individuals with ADHD may have difficulty paying attention, managing impulsive tendencies (i.e., acting without considering the consequences of their actions), or being overly active in their daily activities. For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, he or she must exhibit at least six symptoms of inattention or six indications of hyperactive and impulsive behavior. In addition, the kid must have been exhibiting symptoms consistently for at least 6 months and should have begun exhibiting symptoms before the age of 12. Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper

Autism Spectrum Disease (ASD) is a developmental disorder characterized by symptoms that arise between the ages of two and four years. The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders has been found to range from 0.08 to 9.3 percent globally, with prevalence in the United States ranging between 1.3 and 2.6 percent (Márquez-Caraveo et al., 2021). Parents may detect symptoms almost immediately after birth, but some children will seem to grow normally until they exhibit evidence of the condition around the age of two or three years old (Maenner et al., 2021). The severity of the symptoms of this illness may range from minor to severe. Typically, children with ASD may retreat from social situations and have difficulties with social communication and engagement.

In many cases, the neurodevelopmental disorders co-exist. In the case of persons with autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability is often present, and numerous children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder also have a specific learning disorder (Dewey, 2018). In certain illnesses, the clinical manifestations comprise both symptoms of excesses and deficiencies, along with a delay in reaching anticipated developmental milestones. For instance, autism spectrum disorder is only identified when the basic difficulties in interpersonal contact are followed by overly repetitive behaviors, limited interests, and an obsession with uniformity (Hansen et al., 2018).

Causes

When a combination of complicated genetic and environmental variables conspire to alter brain development, neurodevelopmental disorders are the outcome (Parenti et al., 2020). In certain circumstances, we can identify the genetic and environmental components that are at play. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. Neurodevelopmental abnormalities are more likely to be passed down via families (Sherr, 2016). It is possible that the parent has a learning disability and that their child has ADHD. A brother may be diagnosed with developmental language disorder, whereas his sister may be diagnosed with autism. This shows that several neurodevelopmental problems have a shared etiology, which is a promising hypothesis. Researchers are now investigating the underlying reasons for the brain dysfunctions that contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders. However, no one has yet uncovered the exact causes of these brain dysfunctions. Every person’s brain, of course, is unique in comparison to everyone else’s brain. As a result, while diagnosing neurodevelopmental problems, it is critical to examine how much the condition is interfering with social, academic, or vocational achievement Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper.

More and more research suggests that several neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, may potentially be caused by single gene abnormalities (Cardoso et al., 2019). This gene family often contains uncommon mutations that account for less than one percent of the minor allele probability (the frequency with which the less frequent allele is found in a particular population). Rare mutations comprise both single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copy-number variations (18- duplications or deletions of chromosomal regions of varied size that may impact a single or many genes simultaneously) (Cardoso et al., 2019). The brain and its development may be affected in a number of ways by rare mutations. Furthermore, disease-causing mutations can naturally stimulate proteins, exhibit dominant negative action, or establish novel or aberrant biochemical activities, in addition to impairing genetic configuration and causing illness (Cardoso et al., 2019). Additionally, a single disease gene might be altered at numerous sites, each of which can result in a phenotype that is vastly different from the others. For instance, even when individuals possess similar mutations, a flaw in a particular gene, Disrupted in Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1), may cause a variety of illnesses, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and autism (Cardoso et al., 2019). It may thus be necessary to find causal mutations in both recognized and new genes in order to understand the genetic underpinnings of neurodevelopmental disorders Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper.

Treatment

There are currently no treatments for neurodevelopmental disorders, but there are successful therapy options that, based on the illness, can help regulate some of the clinical manifestations. Excessive worry, restlessness, repetitive behaviors, and impulsive behaviors may all be reduced with the use of medication. In most cases, the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders will be based on the kind of illness and the symptoms that are most prominent in each person. Primarily, treatment may be categorized into two types: pharmacological treatments and nonpharmacological therapies, with the nonpharmacological therapies having the highest number of alternatives available. Serotonergic medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are often used to relieve the symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders (Kim, 2021). In recent years, there has been growing evidence that some neurotransmitters, like serotonin, may have a dual function in the brain. They function as conventional neurotransmitters as well as developing “neurotrophic” hormones (Kim, 2021). Behavior therapy, psychosocial support, and cognitive rehabilitation are examples of nonpharmacological therapies. There are also additional alternatives available that help the children develop skills that have not yet been fully realized, as well as provide the essential assistance to have a worthwhile existence Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper.

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It is possible to improve the developmental prospects of children with developmental problems if they get early attention, but screening is required to detect children who require these resource-intensive therapies. Parenting skills training attempts to improve the behavioral and emotional developmental effects by educating and teaching parents how to better complement and enrich their parental role (Ogundele & Ayyash, 2019). The findings of a meta-analysis revealed that there were four key elements of parental skills training that were very helpful. Maintaining pleasant parent-child relationships, training parents how to establish an emotional connection with their children, training parents how to utilize time out as a form of punishment, and assisting parents in responding regularly to their children ‘s conduct were shown to have the greatest impact on lowering externalizing tendencies in children (Homberg et al., 2016). In addition, multiple research studies have established the usefulness of parenting skills training in lowering externalizing and internalizing difficulties in children, including in decreasing the likelihood of accidental childhood traumas and improving the psychological state of parents, among other outcomes (Muratori et al., 2018). It is possible for childhood disruptive and externalizing behaviors to endure into adolescence and to negatively impact the lives of friends, schools, and communities. As a result, interventions to improve parenting abilities have the potential to delay or prevent the development of childhood mental illnesses and their resulting negative health and social effects Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.

Cardoso, A. R., Lopes-Marques, M., Silva, R. M., Serrano, C., Amorim, A., Prata, M. J., & Azevedo, L. (2019). Essential genetic findings in neurodevelopmental disorders. Human Genomics, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-019-0216-4

Dewey, D. (2018). What is comorbidity and why does it matter in neurodevelopmental disorders? Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 5(4), 235-242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-018-0152-3

Kim, Y. (2021). How can pediatricians treat neurodevelopmental disorders. Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics, 64(1), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2020.00507

Hansen, B. H., Oerbeck, B., Skirbekk, B., Petrovski, B. É., & Kristensen, H. (2018). Neurodevelopmental disorders: Prevalence and comorbidity in children referred to mental health services. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 72(4), 285-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2018.1444087

Homberg, J. R., Kyzar, E. J., Stewart, A. M., Nguyen, M., Poudel, M. K., Echevarria, D. J., … & Kalueff, A. V. (2016). Improving treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders: recommendations based on preclinical studies. Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery, 11(1), 11-25. https://doi.org/10.1517/17460441.2016.1115834

Maenner, M. J., Shaw, K. A., Bakian, A. V., Bilder, D. A., Durkin, M. S., Esler, A., … & Cogswell, M. E. (2021). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2018. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 70(11), 1. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/ss/ss6904a1.htm

Márquez-Caraveo, M. E., Rodríguez-Valentín, R., Pérez-Barrón, V., Vázquez-Salas, R. A., Sánchez-Ferrer, J. C., De Castro, F., Allen-Leigh, B., & Lazcano-Ponce, E. (2021). Children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders show cognitive heterogeneity and require a person-centered approach. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97551-6

Muratori, P., Levantini, V., Manfredi, A., Ruglioni, L., & Lambruschi, F. (2018). Parent training interventions for children and adolescents with aggressive behavioral problems. Parenting – Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73541

Ogundele, M., & Ayyash, H. (2019). G659 evidence-based multidisciplinary assessment and management of children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders. GEORGE STILL FORUM (NATIONAL PAEDIATRIC ADHD NETWORK). https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2019-rcpch.638

Parenti, I., Rabaneda, L. G., Schoen, H., & Novarino, G. (2020). Neurodevelopmental disorders: From genetics to functional pathways. Trends in Neurosciences, 43(8), 608-621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.05.004

Sherr, E. H. (2016). Neurodevelopmental disorders, causes, and consequences. Genomics, Circuits, and Pathways in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 587-599. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-800105-9.00036-6 Neurodevelopmental Disorders Assignment Discussion Paper